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MODERN ENGLISH
Part II
Sentences and Complex Structures

Author: Marcella Frank

درس دستور ونگارش 2 درسی 4 واحدی و یکی از دروس مهم رشته مترجمی زبان در دانشگاه پیام نور می باشد در این بخش به تجزیه وتحلیل کلیه بخشهای این درس مهم خواهیم پرداخت ونیزنمونه سوالاتی خواهیم آورد.

MODERN ENGLISH
Part II
Sentences and Complex Structures

Author: Marcella Frank

Units: 4    

Prepared by: Belghais Rovshan

Modern English Part II

1. Sentences

2. Adverbial Clauses

3. Adjective Clauses

4. Noun Clauses

5. Participial Phrases

6. Gerund Phrases

7. Infinitive Phrases

8. Absolute Constructions

9. Abstract noun Phrases

10. Appositive Phrases

Objectives

The objective of this course is to help students learn English grammatical points by means of proper exercises.

Status

This course emphasizes on the structure of English sentences and provides the students with information necessary for writing and reading courses.

1. Sentences

Types of Sentences

1. Simple sentence

-           Contains one full subject and predicate. Takes the form of:

l        a statement       He lives in New York.

l        a question                How old are you?

Types of Sentences

l        a request          Please close the door.                           (The subject you is understood.)

l        an exclamation What a terrible temper                           she has!

Types of Sentences

2. Compound sentence

-           Contains two or more sentences joined into one by:

Types of Sentences

Types of Sentences

When such sentences are joined coordinately, they are each called independent clauses.

3. Complex sentence

-           Contains one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses.

Types of Sentences

A dependent clause contains a full subject and predicate beginning with a word that attaches the clause to an  independent clause (called the main clause).

Types of Sentences

Types of Sentences

3. Compound-complex sentence

      - Contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Example:

   All classes were canceled because the weather was bad, and students were told to listen to the radio to find out when…

Coordination within sentences – WITH AND, or BUT

Subordination within sentences – Nominal, Adjectival, or Adverbial Elements

Subordination within sentences – Nominal, Adjectival, or Adverbial Elements

Subordination within sentences – Nominal, Adjectival, or Adverbial Elements

Subordination within sentences – Nominal, Adjectival, or Adverbial Elements

Types of Sentences

A phrase consists of a group of words performing a single function. A phrase that begin with a preposition (e.g. on the table) is called a prepositional phrase.

Types of Sentences

A phrase that begins with a form from a verb (either a participle or an infinitive) is called verbal phrase.

1.1 Requests and Commands (Imperative Mood)

The simple form of the verb is used for requests, commands, or instructions.

Second person, singular and plural:

              Open the door.

              Don’t open the door.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

First and second person together:

       Let’s open the door.

       Let’s not open the door.

   (Here the request takes the form of a suggestion.)

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

An adverb may precede the imperative verb:

       Always open that door slowly.

       Don’t ever open that door.

Formulas of politeness such as please, will you please  often accompany requests.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

Changing sentences to imperative form.

Example:

a) You must cook the meat very slowly.

     Cook the meat very slowly.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

b) You shouldn’t do your homework when you’re tired.

    Don’t do your homework when you’re tired.

c) We should take a break soon.

    Let’s take a break soon.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

Other examples:

a) You will first go to the post office and then to the bank.

    First go to the post office and then to the bank.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

b) To get the right color, you must mix equal parts of red and blue.

     To get the right color, mix equal parts of red and blue.

1.1 Requests and Commands
(Imperative Mood)

c) You and I should take care of this right away. We shouldn’t wait any longer.

     Let’s take care of this right away. Let’s not wait any longer.

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

Exclamations may begin with what or how.

What – a noun ends the exclamatory phrase

     What delicious fruit this is!

     What delicious pineapples these are!

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

How – an adjective or adverb ends the           exclamatory phrase

        How graceful she is!

        How graceful she dances!

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

The subject and the verb in an

exclamatory sentence retain normal word

order except in poetic or literary style –

How green was my valley!

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

Changing some statements to exclamations.

Example:

a)     She has a pleasant personality

        What a pleasant personality she has!

b)     These are expensive towels.

        What expensive towels these are!

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

Other examples:

a) She has long eyelashes.

    What long eyelashes she has!

b) The store was crowded yesterday.

    How crowded the store was yesterday.

1.2 Exclamatory Sentences

Notes:

1)  Use how  with much, many.

     How many books this author has written!

2)  A preposition that is part of the exclamatory phrase usually appears in final position. What terrible trouble he is in?

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

Sentences or clauses may be joined coordinately by punctuation alone, by coordinate conjunctions, or by conjunctive adverbs.

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

If both clauses are short, the comma may be omitted before and. If one or both clauses are long, the conjunctive adverb may actually start a new sentence.

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

Combining sentences in the three ways - by punctuation alone, by coordinate conjunctions, and by conjunctive adverbs.

Example:

        John was sick. He came to school anyhow.

          John was sick; he came to school anyhow.

1.3 Joining Sentences Coordinately
(Compound Sentences)

John was sick, but he came to school.

(Anyhow is replaced by but.)

John was sick; however, he came to school.

(Anyhow is replaced by however.)

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

A. Combining sentences with the conjunctive adverbs.

Moreover, In Addition, Besides

Example:

        John is a very lazy student.

        Also, he always comes late to class.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

Otherwise

Example:

        We must all eat the proper food.

        If we don’t, we’ll get sick. (omit if we don’t)

We must all eat the proper food; otherwise, we’ll get sick.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

B. Joining sentences by the coordinate conjunctions and, or, but, so or for.

Example:

a) and (addition)

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

Mr. Smith is an intelligent and stimulating teacher, and he takes an interest in the personal well-being of all his students.

b) or (condition)

We must all eat the proper food, or we’ll get sick.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

c) but (concession)

There are many people who like to buy on the installment plan, but I prefer to buy for cash.

d) so (result), for (cause)

There is no demand in the United States for the type of car you sell, so I cannot give you an order for this car.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

or

I cannot give you an order for this car, for there is no demand….

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

C. Joining sentences by the subordinate conjunctions if, although, because.

Example:

a) if (condition)

If we don’t all eat the proper food, we’ll get sick.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

b) although (concession)

Although there are many people who like to buy on the installment plan, I prefer to buy for cash.

1.4 Joining Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs (Compound Sentences)

c) because (cause)

Because there is no demand in the United States for the type of car you sell, I cannot give you an order for this car.

1.5 Abridgements in Clauses of Short Agreement

Clauses may be abridged by substituting an auxiliary for an entire predicate.

1.5 Abridgements in Clauses of Short Agreement

1.5 Abridgements in Clauses of Short Agreement

1.5 Abridgements in Clauses of Short Agreement

1.6 Parallel Construction

Word, phrases, or clauses joined by the coordinate conjunctions and, or, but  have the same grammatical form.

1.6 Parallel Construction

Her long illness and slow recovery made her very despondent.

She doesn’t like to get up in the morning or to go to bed at night.

He told us that his wife had been in an accident but that luckily she had not been hurt.

1.6 Parallel Construction

Parallel forms are also required with the paired coordinate conjunctions (correlatives) – both…and, (n)either…(n)or, not only…but also.

They are either at their country home or at the beach.

1.6 Parallel Construction

Elements contrasted with not are likewise put in parallel form.

He always does what he wants to do, not what he should do.

1.6 Parallel Construction

Exercise:

Correct the item in parentheses so that they are grammatically parallel to the items that precede and, or, but or not.

1.6 Parallel Construction

Example:

I like the painting but not (how it is framed).

I like the painting but not the way it is framed.

1.6 Parallel Construction

1. He spends his summer weekends either playing tennis or (at the beach).

He spends his summer weekends either playing tennis or sunbathing at the beach.

1.6 Parallel Construction

2. Wanting to accomplish something and (if you actually accomplish it) may not be the same thing.

Wanting to accomplish something and actually accomplishing it may not be the same thing.

1.7 “Dangling” Constructions

Many introductory structures that do not contain their own “subjects” within them depend on the subject of the main clause for their agents.

1.7 “Dangling” Constructions

Preparing breakfast in too much of a hurry, she burned the toast.

After eating dinner, she cleared the table.

1.7 “Dangling” Constructions

Such introductory elements usually correspond to the predicate parts of simple sentences. If the subjects that follow cannot serve as their agents, the introductory structures are considered as “dangling”.

1.7 “Dangling” Constructions

Examples:

Preparing breakfast in too much of a hurry, the toast was burned.

After eating dinner, the table was cleared.

2. Adverbial Clauses

2.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses

An adverbial clause consists of a subject and predicate introduced by a subordinate conjunction like when, although, because, if.

2.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses

Examples:

I was in south America last year.

During this time I learned to speak Spanish.

2.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses

While (or When) I was in South America last year, I learned to speak Spanish.

I learned to speak Spanish while (or when) I was in South America last year.

2.2
Verbs in Time Clauses: Future Time

The present tense is used in clauses expressing future time.

He will go straight home after he closes the store.

2.2
Verbs in Time Clauses: Future Time

The present perfect tense may occur in future time clauses, especially with after or until.

He will go straight home after he has closed the store.

2.3
Verbs in Time Clauses: Past Time

2.3
Verbs in Time Clauses: Past Time

2.3
Verbs in Time Clauses: Past Time

2.4
Conditional Clauses with Unless

In may sentences, unless is the equivalent of if…not.

2.4
Conditional Clauses with Unless

If you don’t get off my property, I’ll call the police.

or

Unless you get off my property, I’ll call the police.

2.5
Real Conditions (1) Future Time

Real conditions are conditions that are possible to be realized. They often refer to one event in the future.

2.5
Real Conditions (1) Future Time

1) With future main verb –

If the weather is good, I’ll go to the beach.

2) With imperative main verb –

If he calls, tell him to come here at once.

Usually the present tense is used in the conditional clause.

2.6
Real Conditions (2): General Time

Real conditions may be used in general statements about repeated events.

2.6
Real Conditions (2): General Time

2.6
Real Conditions (2): General Time

Note that for general time, the present tense is used for both clauses; for past time, the past tense is used for both clauses. Note further that in each sentence if may be replaced by when or whenever.

2.7
Unreal Conditions (Contrary to Fact)

2.7
Unreal Conditions (Contrary to Fact)

2.8 Conditional Clauses Beginning with Were, Had, Should

2.8 Conditional Clauses Beginning with Were, Had, Should

2.8 Conditional Clauses Beginning with Were, Had, Should

2.9
Mixed Time In Unreal Conditions

2.9
Mixed Time In Unreal Conditions

2.9
Mixed Time In Unreal Conditions

2.10 Unreal Conditions in Sentences with But, Or, Otherwise

2.10 Unreal Conditions in Sentences with But, Or, Otherwise

2.10 Unreal Conditions in Sentences with But, Or, Otherwise

2.10 Unreal Conditions in Sentences with But, Or, Otherwise

2.10 Unreal Conditions in Sentences with But, Or, Otherwise

2.11 Adverbial Clauses of Result with So, Such, Such A

2.11 Adverbial Clauses of Result with So, Such, Such A

2.11 Adverbial Clauses of Result with So, Such, Such A

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

The past subjunctive refers to time that is simultaneous with that of the main verb; the past perfect indicated time that precedes that of the main verb.

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

Exercise:

Replace this way in the first sentence with a manner clause made from the second sentence. Note whether the indicative or the subjunctive form of the verb may be used in the manner clause.

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.12
Adverbial Clauses of Manner

2.13 Phrasal Conjunctions in Adverbial Clauses

2.13 Phrasal Conjunctions in Adverbial Clauses

2.13 Phrasal Conjunctions in Adverbial Clauses

3. Adjective Clauses

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.

Other words that may introduce adjective clauses are:

3.1
Recognition of Adjective Clauses 

An adjective clause consists of a subject and a predicate that modifies a preceding noun or pronoun (its antecedent).

3.1
Recognition of Adjective Clauses 

The introductory word who or that refers to a person, which or that to a thing, when to a time, where to a place, why to a reason.

3.2
Punctuation of Adjective Clauses 

3.2
Punctuation of Adjective Clauses 

3.2
Punctuation of Adjective Clauses 

3.3 Case of Relative Pronouns Introducing Adjective Clauses

3.3 Case of Relative Pronouns Introducing Adjective Clauses

3.3 Case of Relative Pronouns Introducing Adjective Clauses

3.3 Case of Relative Pronouns Introducing Adjective Clauses

3.4 Relative Pronouns as Object of Prepositions

3.5 Relative Pronouns Patterning Like Some of Which

3.5 Relative Pronouns Patterning Like Some of Which

3.6 Number of the Verb after a Phrase Beginning with One of The

3.6 Number of the Verb after a Phrase Beginning with One of The

3.8 Adjective Clauses Used in Definition

3.8 Adjective Clauses Used in Definition

4. Noun Clauses

4.1 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (1)

A noun clause consists of a subject and predicate that functions as a noun.

4.1 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (1)

One of its most common functions is as the object of a verb, especially of a verb of asserting or mental activity.

4.1 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (1)

If such a verb in the past tense, the verb in the noun clause object takes past form also.

A. Indirect Speech – Noun Clauses from Statements

4.1 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (1)

4.1 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (1)

B. Indirect Speech – Noun Clauses from Questions

Example:

He asked me, “Does the train always arrive late?”

He asked me whether (or informal if) the train always arrived late.

4.2 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses (2)

Example:

He denies that he took the money.

He denied that he had taken the money.

4.3 Noun Clauses Objects From Statements, Questions, Exclamations

Example:

a) The package has arrived.

     He said          (that) the package had arrived.       

4.3 Noun Clauses Objects From Statements, Questions, Exclamations

Example:

b) Can they afford to buy a house?

    They wondered         whether they could afford to 

     buy a house.

c) What time is it?

     I don’t know           what time it is.

4.3 Noun Clauses Objects From Statements, Questions, Exclamations

Example:

d) What a terrible cold she has!

     Did you notice              what a terrible cold she had?

e) Who is playing the piano?

    She asked                      who was playing the piano.

4.4 Noun Clauses After Wish (1) Referring to Present Time

After the verb wish, a that  noun clause may refer to present or past time. The introductory that is often omitted.

4.4 Noun Clauses After Wish (1) Referring to Present Time

Wishes referring to present time are often contrary to fact. The past subjunctive form of the verb is used for such wishes.

Example:

I’m home now. I wish (be at the beach).

I wish I were at the beach.

(Only the form were  is used for the verb be)

Wishes with WOULD

Wishes with would  often represent present-to-future time. Would is used for a wish that is possible to realize.

Example:

I wish (that) it would stop raining.

vs.

I wish (that) it weren’t raining now.

4.5 Noun Clauses After Wish (2) Referring To Past Time

Wishes referring to past time are not realized. Past perfect forms are used in such wishes.

4.5 Noun Clauses After Wish (2) Referring To Past Time

Example:

1) She lives in the city now. She wishes (never leave

     the country).

      She wishes she had never left the country.

2) This house is too small. I wish (not buy it).

      I wish I had not bought it.

4.6 Noun Clauses With Infinitive Abridgement

Abridgement with infinitives occurs most often with noun clause objects that are derived from questions.

4.6 Noun Clauses With Infinitive Abridgement

The agent in an abridged noun clause object is either:

1) the subject of the main verb

        I don’t know when to go (= when I should go).

4.6 Noun Clauses With Infinitive Abridgement

2) the object of the main verb

     He told me when to go (= when I should go).

4.7 That Clauses After Verbs of Urgency

That clauses after verbs like suggest, request, require, urge, demand require the simple form of the verb.

4.7 That Clauses After Verbs of Urgency

This simple form is used regardless of the tense of the main verb.

4.8 That Clauses After Adjectives of Urgency

The simple form of the verb is used in that clauses after adjectives of urgency like important, necessary, essential, urgent.

4.8 That Clauses After Adjectives of Urgency

It is important that each student fill out a registration form.

The auxiliary should may be contained within the that clause after an adjective of urgency.

4.9 Changing Famous Statements To Indirect Speech

Exercise:

Changing statements into indirect speech by making each one the object of said.

4.9 Changing Famous Statements To Indirect Speech

Example:

1) Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Alexander Pope)

Alexander Pope said that fools rushed in where angels feared to tread.

4.10 Changing Famous Statements To Indirect Speech

Example:

2) God helps those that help themselves. (Benjamin Franklin)

Benjamin Franklin said that God helps those that help themselves.

4.10 Changing Famous Statements To Indirect Speech

Example:

3) Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. (Aristotle)

Aristotle said that poverty was the parent of revolution and crime.

5. Participial Phrases

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Present Participle (example, offering)

The time of the main verb determines the time of the participle.

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Example:

The woman who is washing the dishes is our new cook.

The woman washing the dishes is our new cook.

(The participle is derived from a progressive verb.)

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Past Participle (example, offered)

The time of the main verb determines the time of the participle.

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Example:

Doctors often recommend rabies shots for anyone who is bitten by a strange dog.

Doctors often recommend rabies shots for anyone bitten by a strange dog.

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Progressive Passive Participle (example, being offered)

This participle expresses present action.

Example:

Those houses which are now being torn down were built fifty years ago.

Those houses being torn down now were built fifty years ago.

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

Perfect Participial Forms (examples, having offered, having been offering, having been offered)

The perfect forms indicate time that corresponds to the present perfect or the past perfect tense.

5.1 Forms of Participles (1)

 Example:

Anyone who has talked to him once will be convinced of his innocence.

Anyone having talked to him once will be convinced of his innocence.

5.2 Forms of Participles (2)

Exercise:

Change the adjective clauses to participial phrases, using one of the participial forms given in 5-1.

5.2 Forms of Participles (2)

1) The girl who is making the most noise is my daughter.

The girl making the most noise is my daughter.

5.2 Forms of Participles (2)

 2) The general, who had been warned of the enemy’s approaching attack, had all his men ready.

The general having been warned of the enemy’s approaching attack, had all his men ready.

5.3 Punctuation And Position
Of Participial Phrases

 Participial phrases that appear after the nouns they modify are punctuated in the same way as adjective clauses,

5.3 Punctuation And Position
Of Participial Phrases

depending on whether the phrase is restrictive (narrows down the reference) or nonrestrictive (does not narrow the reference).

5.3 Punctuation And Position
Of Participial Phrases

l         Restrictive – A student hoping to finish college in three years must work very hard. (No commas are used.)

l         Nonrestrictive – Robert, hoping to finish college in three years, worked very hard. (Commas are used.)

5.4 Participial Phrases
In Two-part Objects of Verbs

Some verbs are followed by two-part objects, the second of which is participial phrase.

CATCH, KEEP, LEAVE, SEND, FIND

5.4 Participial Phrases
In Two-part Objects of Verbs

The police caught the young boy stealing a car.

They found the horse tied to a tree.

These verbs may be passive –

Their rowboat was found drifting in the lake.

5.4 Participial Phrases
In Two-part Objects of Verbs

Verbs of Perception

BEHOLD, FEEL, HEAR, LISTEN TO, NOTICE, OBSERVE, PERCEIVE, SEE, WATCH, WITNESS

We heard the children crying.

I saw them running across the street.

5.5 Participial Phrases
To Express Means of Manner

Participial phrases used in final position may express means or manner with respect to the subject.

She caught cold sitting on the wet grass.

5.5 Participial Phrases
To Express Means of Manner

By sometimes precedes the participle.

        Such participial phrases are especially

        common after sit, stand, lie.

He sat there staring at the wall.

5.5 Participial Phrases
To Express Means of Manner

 Exercise:

Use the words in parentheses to form a participial phrase of means or manner.

1) He earns a living (drive, truck).

He earns a living by driving truck.

5.5 Participial Phrases
To Express Means of Manner

 Exercise:

2) The men amused themselves (tell, stories, the biggest fish they had ever caught).

The men amused themselves by telling stories about the biggest fish they had ever caught.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

Like adverbial clauses, participial phrases may indicate time or cause. Such participial phrases are more likely to occur in initial position than in final position.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

After and because may be implied simultaneously in a participial phrase –

Having eaten too much, be became sleepy.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

The time word may also be placed before the participial phrase -  after having finished all her housework; while walking along the street.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Exercise:

A) Expand the participial phrases to adverbial clauses. Note which participial phrases may also have a time word placed before them.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Example:

a) Having shopped all day, she was glad to get home and rest.

After she had shopped all day, she was glad to get home and rest.

(also After shopping all day… or After having shopped all day…)

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Example:

b) Playing golf in the afternoon heat, he suffered a sunstroke.

While he was playing golf in the afternoon heat, he suffered a sunstroke.

(also While playing golf in the afternoon heat…)

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Exercise:

B) Change the adverbial clauses of time or cause to participial phrases. Note which participles may be preceded by time words.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Example:

a) Because they were impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they offered him a good job with their firm.

Impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they offered him a good job with their firm.

5.6 Participial Phrases As Alternatives
For Adverbial Clauses

 Example:

b) While he was walking in the park, he suddenly had a heart attack.

Walking in the park, he suddenly had a heart attack.

(also While walking in the park….)

5.7 Instructions
With HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

6. Gerund Phrases

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Gerunds are participial forms used in noun function. All forms of the participle may be used except the part participle.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Like the participle, the gerund may be made negative by placing not before it.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

General Forms

Present participle – offering

Passive progressive -  being offered

These forms express present, past or future time, depending on the time of the main verb.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Exercise:

Supply the active or the passive gerund form of the verb in parentheses.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Examples:

a) (Be)               being            honest at all times is not always easy.

b) The boy was fired for (not come)                 

            not coming              to work on time.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

1) (Tell)        Telling           a little white lie is sometimes preferable to (tell)      telling       the absolute truth.

2) Special forms are required for (record)     

              recording            that information.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

3) (Not do)          Not doing           one’s work properly may be worse than (not do)           

                 not doing               it at all.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Perfect forms

Active--- having offered, having been offering

Passive--- having been offered

These forms emphasize the completion of one event before another. In most cases, the general forms are also possible.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Supplying the perfect active or passive form of the verb in parentheses.

Example:

a) I seem to remember (do) having done this exercise before.

6.1 Forms of Gerunds

Example:

b) After (clear)       having been cleared      through customs, he immediately look a taxi to his hotel.

c) She reproached her husband for (not tell)

           not telling            her about his business

           losses.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

In gerund phrases, original subjects and objects in full sentences are often changed in form.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Thus the full sentence The hunter shot the birds becomes the gerund phrase the hunter’s shooting of the birds.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

A form like the hunter’s, which represents the original subject, will be referred to in this following chapter as the “subject”.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

A form like of the birds, which represents the original object, will be referred to as the “object”.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

A gerund phrase may be used without its “subject” included in the phrase, or it may contain a “subject” in inflected ’s form or in prepositional form.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

No “Subject” Included

In the Gerund Phrase

The agent for such a gerund phrase may be:

1) Understood as a generic person (anyone, a person, people, etc.) -- Playing with guns is dangerous.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

2) Understood from the general context –

He suggested eating dinner at the airport.

3) Provided in another part of the sentence –

On seeing the damage he had done, the child felt ashamed. (The agent of seeing is child, the subject of the main verb.)

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

We thanked them for making such a generous contribution.

(The agent of making is them, the object of the main verb)

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Exercise:

Make a “subjectless” gerund phrase out of the words in parentheses. Make whatever changes or additions are necessary

Example:

     (fish, this lake) is forbidden.

Fishing in this lake is forbidden.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

1)  He doesn’t enjoy (drive, night).

He doesn’t enjoy driving at night.

2) (bring up, that subject) will only cause trouble.

    Bringing up that subject will only cause trouble.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

“Subject”

in Inflected Possessive Form

The girl resents her sister’s getting more attention that she does.

The idea of Harold’s getting a job as a traveling salesman doesn’t appeal to his wife.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Exercise:

Make a gerund phrase out of the words in parentheses, using the inflected possessive form for the “subject” of the gerund.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Examples:

a) The doctor recommended (we, move, dryer climate).

The doctor recommended our moving to a dryer climate.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

b) (the general, slap, wounded soldier) caused quite a scandal.

     The general’s slapping a wounded soldier caused

     quite a scandal.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

1) (they, break-off, negotiations, so soon) was quite unexpected.

Their breaking off the negotiations so soon was quite unexpected.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

2) No one was aware of his presence because of (he, enter, room, so quietly).

No one was aware of his presence because of his entering the room so quietly.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

“Subject” an OF Phrase

A gerund phrase with an of phrase “subject” is usually introduced by the. Such an of phrase “subject” occurs mostly with intransitive verbs –

The shouting of the children disturbed his sleep.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

If the subject represents a live being, it may be put in either an of phrase or in ’s possessive form –

the shouting of the children

or  

the children’s shouting.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

However, only the inflected form is used if the “subject” is a personal pronoun –

Their shouting disturbed his sleep;

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

and only the of phrase is used if the “subject” is long –

The shouting of the men in the tavern disturbed his sleep.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Exercise:

Make a gerund phrase out of the words in parentheses, using an of phrase for the “subject”. Note where the ’s possessive form may also be used.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Examples:

a) He was awakened by (the dog, bark).

He was awakened by the barking of the dog.

(also He was awakened by the dog’s barking.)

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

b) (the pipes, burst) was caused by the extreme cold.

The bursting of the pipes was caused by the extreme cold.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

Examples:

1) She was deeply touched by (the wounded men, suffer).

She was deeply touched by the wounded men’s suffering.

6.2 “Subjects” in Gerund Phrases

2) (lake, freeze over) occurred earlier than usual this year.

The freezing over of the lake occurred earlier than usual this year.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

If the precedes the gerund, the “object” is contained within an of phrase.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

The storing of the merchandise became a problem after the warehouse burned down.

but

Storing the merchandise became a problem after the warehouse burned down.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

Usually the phrase beginning with the has stronger noun force. In some gerund phrases, the of phrase “object” cannot be used –

Taking drugs is detrimental to the health.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

Exercise:

Make a gerund phrase out of the words in parentheses, using an of phrase “object”. Note where it is also possible to use an “object” without of.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

Example:

    The school administration is opposed (shorten, school year).

The school administration is opposed to the shortening of the school year.

also

The school administration is opposed to shortening the school year.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

Example:

1) The office boy is responsible for (mail, packages).

The office boy is responsible for the mailing of the packages.

6.3 THE + GERUND + OF PHRASE “OBJECT”

2) (address, those letters) will take a long time.

The addressing of those letters will take a long time.

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

Certain verbs may be followed by gerund phrase objects.

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

The most common of these verbs are:

acknowledge, admit, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, cannot help, delay, deny, enjoy, finish, give up, justify, keep on, mention, miss, postpone, practice, put off, recommend…

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

…resent, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand.

The perfect gerund is often used after these verbs to emphasize time that precedes that of the main verb.

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

Exercise:

Make a gerund phrase out of the words in parentheses. Note where perfect gerunds may also be used.

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

Example:

  I enjoy (play, piano).

I enjoy playing the piano.

(I is the “subject” of the gerund)

6.4
Gerund Phrase Objects of Verbs

1) I anticipated (have, some trouble, with them).

I anticipated having some trouble with them.

2) He denied (act, improperly, the matter).

He denied acting improperly regarding the matter.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Gerund phrases may function as prepositional objects (We plan on having a housewarming party soon)

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

or as objects in adverbial prepositional phrases (After listening to the news, she started to prepare dinner).

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Gerund Phrases

as Prepositional Objects

Exercise:

Supply the required preposition and the gerund form of the verb in parenthesis.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Examples:

He was accused (kill)        of                    killing            his neighbor.

1) I am looking forward (see)        to                seeing  

     you again.

2) Nothing will deter him (continue)           from

            continuing         his experiment.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Gerund Phrases Objects

in Adverbial Prepositional Phrases

Exercise:

Make gerund phrases out of the words in parenthesis.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Examples:

    On (hear, bad news), she began to weep uncontrollably.

On hearing the bad news, she began to weep uncontrollably.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

Examples:

1) You must cover the pan before  (put, it, oven).

You must cover the pan before putting it in the oven.

6.5 Gerund Phrase Objects of Prepositions

2) Because of (he, fail, to pay, his taxes), he was given a prison term.

Because of his failing to pay his taxes, he was given a prison term.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

An adverb may remain unchanged when used in initial or final position in a gerund phrase.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

His wife was shocked at his recklessly breaking the law.

His wife was shocked at his breaking the law recklessly.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

Often, however, adverbs are transformed to adjectives that precede the gerund.

His wife was shocked at his reckless breaking of the law.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

This adjective form is required in the

the + gerund + of phrase construction –

The constant dripping of the water irritated her.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

Exercise:

In each sentences, replace this with a gerund phrase made from the first sentence. Change the adverb in the first sentence to an adjective preceding the gerund.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

Example:

a.     He handled the affair discreetly.

        The company appreciated this.

        The company appreciated his discreet

          handling of the affair.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

1.     He coughed violently.

        This kept him awake all night.

        His violent coughing kept him awake all night.

6.6 Adjectives-From-Adverbs
in Gerund Phrases

2.     All the prisoners were ruthlessly killed.

        He was shocked at this.

        He was shocked at the ruthless killing of all the

          prisoners.

8. Absolute Constructions

8.1
With Absolute Constructions

The word with (or its negative without) may initiate an absolute construction, making the construction technically a prepositional phrase and thereby relating it grammatically to the rest of the sentence.

8.1
With Absolute Constructions

Such with absolutes generally have the same kind of predicates as absolutes without with.

The ocean looks very beautiful with the moonlight glimmering on its surface.

8.1
With Absolute Constructions

With the police on all sides of them and ready to shoot, the bank robbers finally surrendered.

8.2
Position Of Absolute Constructions

As loose nonrestrictive elements, the absolute constructions may occupy all three adverbial positions.

8.2
Position Of Absolute Constructions

However, certain of absolutes are more likely to appear in one position rather than in another.

8.2
Position Of Absolute Constructions

8.2
Position Of Absolute Constructions

9. Abstract Noun Phrases

9.1
Form Of Abstract Nouns

Nouns that are used as the grammatical head of abstract noun phrases are derived either from verbs or predicate adjectives.

(to answer, verb; an answer, noun).

9.2 “SUBJECTS” IN
ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

“Subjects” in abstract noun phrases are used in the same way as “subjects” in gerund phrases.

He is responsible for the management of the office.

9.3 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (1)

In an abstract noun phrase, an original direct object often takes of phrase form, or less frequently, possessive form.

9.3 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (1)

The execution of the prisoners will cause much public disapproval.

(compare with the gerund phrase – the executing of the prisoners)

or

The prisoners’ execution will cause much public disapproval.

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

Some original direct objects of finite verbs require preposition other than of when they follow the abstract noun derived from the verb.

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

Exercise:

Change the words in parentheses into an abstract noun phrase. Use correct preposition before the original direct object.

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

Example:

a) (he, prefer, only daughter) is very obvious.

His preference for his only daughter is very obvious.

b) (he, resemble, father) is very striking.

His resemblance to his father is very striking.

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

Example:

1) (damage, flooded area) was so great that the government is declaring it a disaster area.

The damage to the flooded area was so great that the government is declaring it a disaster area.

9.4 “Objects” In Abstract Noun Phrases (2)

2) (he, answer, questions) were not entirely satisfactory to the grand jury.

His answers to questions were not entirely satisfactory to the grand jury.

9.5 SPECIAL “COMPLEMENTS” OF NOUNS
IN ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

Prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases or that noun clause that normally follow verbs or adjectives may also follow the nouns derived from such words.

9.5 SPECIAL “COMPLEMENTS” OF NOUNS
IN ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

9.5 SPECIAL “COMPLEMENTS” OF NOUNS
IN ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

9.6 ADJECTIVE – FROM – ADVERBS In Abstract Noun Phrases

-Ly adverbs are changed to adjectives in abstract noun phrases. These –ly adverbs appear originally as modifier of verbs or predicate of adjectives.

9.6 ADJECTIVE – FROM – ADVERBS In Abstract Noun Phrases

They interrupted his speech continually

becomes

Their continual interruption of his speech.

9.7 Abstract Noun Phrases As
Alternatives For Dependent Clause

The abstract noun phrase may be the equivalent of a noun clause or an adverbial clause.

9.7 Abstract Noun Phrases As
Alternatives For Dependent Clause

That her husband failed to keep his word disturbed her very much.

or

Her husband’s failure to keep his word disturbed her very much.

10. Appositive Phrases

10.1 Changing Adjective Clauses
To Appositive Phrases

Adjective clauses containing a form of be may be reduced to appositive phrases by retaining only the complement after be (noun, adjective…)

10.1 Changing Adjective Clauses
To Appositive Phrases

The young man, who is now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost much of his old ambition.

becomes

The young man, now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost much of his old ambition.

10.2 “Complements”
Of Appositive Nouns And Adjectives

“Complements” of Appositive Nouns

Appositive nouns may be followed by the same types of “complements” as predicate nouns.

10.2 “Complements”
Of Appositive Nouns And Adjectives

Exercise:

Form a appositive noun phrase out of the words in parentheses. In some phrases there maybe a choice of "complements".

10.2 “Complements”
Of Appositive Nouns And Adjectives

Example:

Ten Main Street, the address (the envelope), proved to be incorrect.

Ten Main Street, the address on the envelope, proved to be incorrect.

10.2 “Complements”
Of Appositive Nouns And Adjectives

1) The United States, a country (its frontiers, once kept expanding, westward) no longer has a western frontier.

The United States, a country whose frontiers once kept expanding westward no longer has a western frontier.

10.2 “Complements”
Of Appositive Nouns And Adjectives

2) Philadelphia, the city (Brotherly Love) is actually no more friendly than any other city.

Philadelphia, the city of Brotherly Love, is actually no more friendly than any other city.

10.3
Position Of Appositive Phrases

The most common position for appositive phrases is after the nouns they refer to.

His uncle, a proud and unbending man, refused all help that was offered him.

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